英语逻辑语法要略



万物存在。语言是对万有的描摹叙述。万有皆可名,皆有名,有名的的存在在语言里就是(名词)主体。

逻辑语法的基本理论是:

1)主体存在;
2)主体可以自描述;
3)主体以动词互相作用形成事件。

众所周知,通常认为在英语里存在五种基本的简单句型,其构成分别是:

1. S + V (主谓)
2. S + V + C (主系表/主谓补)
3. S + V + O (主谓宾)
4. S + V + O + O (主谓宾宾)
5. S + V + O + C (主谓宾补)

[ S:Subject(主语) V:Verb (谓语/谓词) O:Object(宾语) C:Complement(补语) ]

这些句型可以分别举例。

1. 主语+动词:
Mary laughed.

2. 主语+动词+补语:
She is a teacher.
She is beautiful.

3. 主语+动词+直接宾语:
John loves Mary.

4. 主语+动词+间接宾语+直接宾语:
John gives her a gift.

5. 主语+动词+宾语+补语:
John made her happy.

虽然学界对英语到底有几种基本句型这一问题尚存在争议(比如Quirk认为有七种),但我认为如果不细究,粗分为上述五种已经足够。

不过疑问在于,为什么英语会存在这五种基本句型而不是其他,语言学家、语法学家可能是根据自己的观察体验归纳总结出来的,却没有阐述清楚隐藏在深处的机理。在此,我试着做一个分析。

这里就要用到我一开始就提到的逻辑语法基本理论:1)主体存在;2)主体可以自描述;3)主体以动词互相作用形成事件。

我在此说的主体和主语不同,主体可以在句子当中做主语,也可以做宾语,凡是在语言游戏中担任了某一角色的,都是主体(具体体现为一个名词或名词词组)。

那么,一门语言要形成表达,第一先决要素就是某主体、对象存在。

“主体存在”在英语里有其对应的表达方式,即There be …这种句型。

There are three books.
Once upon a time, there was a king who had three beautiful daughters.

There be …类的句子通常可能会被归并到S + V + C基本句型当中,there被当作虚主语或者空主语。为什么主语为空呢,因为我们还没有引入主体这一主要角色。主角尚不存在,自然无法围绕它展开一句话。因此我们需要there be…这种存在句引入主体。

主体引入之后,就可以围绕主体进一步描述。在这个时候,最简单最基本的描述应该是自描述,即描摹叙述这一主体自身具有什么样的性质和状态,它可以做出什么样的动作。不关涉其他主体,不与其他人、物、事等互动。

自描述可以分为两种,一种是描述自身固有的相对静态的性质、状态、特征,把主体和这些特质直接用系动词连接在一起,这就是所谓的主系表(S + V + C)句型。可举例如下:

He is an artist. (表语为名词)
The apple is red. (表语为形容词)
Four plus two is six. (表语为数词)
That iPhone is mine. (表语为代词)
He is not at home. (表语为介词短语,地点)
The meeting is at 2.30. (表语为介词短语,时间)
The war is over. (表语为副词)
My hobby is reading. (表语为动名词)
Our duty is to do our best to keep on living. (表语为不定式)

系动词除了be,还可以用feel, look, sound, taste, seem, smell(感官动词)以及turn, get, become(表示状态变化)。

I feel good.
She seems sad.
The milk turned sour.
He became a lawyer.

尽管系动词不一样,系词之后的词汇依然用来描述主体固有的特性与状态,是自描述。

另一种自描述描摹叙述主体自身可以发出的各类动作,是主体自为事件。此为主谓( S + V )句型。

She cries.
Nobody went.
A bus arrives.
They are eating.
The fire burnt furiously.

主体自描述是一个人唱独角戏,难免单调乏味,于是再引入第二个主体,与之互相作用。此互相作用即是动作,用(谓语)动词连接表达,从而形成一个互动事件。表达互动事件的基本句型是主谓宾(S + V + O)。

John loves Mary. (宾语为名词)
He fetched her from the station. (宾语为代词)
We enjoyed ourselves at the party. (宾语为反身代词)
I want to go home now. (宾语为不定式)
I enjoy sitting in the sun. (宾语为ing分词或现在分词)

观察上述例句可以发现,引入的第二个主体在互动事件里做配角,既然第一个主体是“主”,那么它就是“宾”,宾语。主体这一术语内涵庞大,它可以是人,可以是物,也可以是行为和事件,更或者是想象、心理状态、词汇自身等。凡是可以名词化,具有名词意味的语言形式都可以做主体,充当句子的主语或宾语。

附带说一下,两个主体互动且用动词连结并不必然意味着要采用S + V + O这种形式,比如在汉语里可以说“我这本书已经读过“,结构是S+O+V,日语更是普遍采用SOV这一语序。像星球大战里的Yoda大师,说话的语序可能是O + S + V。”When 900 hundred years old you reach, look as good you will not.“

下面我们考虑一类情形,两个主体不但互动,而且这种互动造成了第二个主体(宾语)具备了某种性质、状态或特性,或者使之产生了某个动作,这就有了主谓宾补( S + V + O + C )这一基本句型。

We called her Annie.
They appointed him chairman.

I found the book easy.
Loud music drives me crazy.

I will let him go.
Tom made the girl cry.
Mary forced John to marry her.

I smell something burning in the kitchen.
He could hear his heart beating fast.

I saw her beaten inside classroom.
Deputies noticed a car parked here last night.

第一个主体(主语)要使第二个主体(宾语)产生某种动作,必须是使役动词,比如let、make、have、get、help,ask,allow,force,enable、require、persuade等。

感官动词find、feel、hear、smell、see、watch、notice、observe、look at可以使主语发现存在于宾语(第二主体)身上的某个特性或某个动作(事件)。

其他,则是第一主体的行为本身使第二主体具备了某一特质或状态。比如,Michael named his son Tom,就是name这一动词行为使his son具有了Tom这个名字。

深入观察会发现,S + V + O + C这一句型的O+C(宾补)部分与前述的主系表(S + V + C)句型、主谓( S + V )句型,以及主谓宾( S + V + O )存在着同构,都属于接着引入的第二主体的自描述或交互事件,只不过省略了主系表句式里的系动词,或者对主谓、主谓宾句式里的动词做了变动,改成了非谓语动词形式。her Annie / him chairman / the book easy / me crazy / him go / the girl cry / John to marry her / something burning in the kitchen / his heart beating fast / her beaten inside classroom / a car parked here last night。只要把第二主体(宾语)的宾格形式改成主格,并加上相应的系动词,或者给非谓动词加上时态,就是一个完全合法的S + V + C、S + V或S + V + O 基本句型。

因此我们可以说主谓宾补(SVOC)这一句型是在谓语动词之后添加了宾语(第二主体)的自描述或交互事件,不过这个自描述或交互事件是SVC、SV、SVO缩略变形了的形式。

我们在前面只引入了两个主体(主语和宾语),现在继续扩展,在句子中引入第三个主体,就有了最后一种基本句型,即主谓宾宾( S + V + O + O )。

Mary gives me a gift.
I will write you a long letter.
He bought his wife a fur coat.

在这种句型结构里可以用的谓语动词有give、bring、tell、send、leave、pass、read、write、take、show、teach、get、lend、buy、pay、hand等,按先后顺序,第二个主体是间接宾语,第三个主体是直接宾语。第一主体(主语)通过动词表达的此一动作把第二主体(somebody)和第三主体(something)联系在一起,使其产生某种关涉。

到此有人可能要问,可不可以继续引入第四主体呢?当然可以,但这已经不是基本简单句型可以解决的问题了,需要使用其他语言手段,后面会讲到,暂不阐述。

前面讲到,SVC、SV、SVO可以与SVO句型拼合形成SVOC基本结构,那么,SVOC是否可以与SVOO合并在一起,形成更复杂的结构?有这个可能,比如John forces me to buy Mary a gift。它是SVOVOO句型?这种说法或许是不对的,因为一个句子里出现了两个谓语动词(V),不符合语法届的一般认识,可以把它看作仍然是基本的SVOC结构,to buy Mary a gift不定式短语整体做补语。

总结一下,因为1)主体存在;2)主体可以自描述(自描述分为两种,主体自身状态描述和主体自发事件描述);3)主体间可以以动词互相作用形成事件(两主体事件,第一主体使第二主体呈现某种状态或发生某一事件,三主体事件),使得英语形成了五种最基本的简单句型。它们分别是: 1. S + V (主谓) 2. S + V + C (主系表/主谓补) 3. S + V + O (主谓宾) 4. S + V + O + O (主谓宾宾) 5. S + V + O + C (主谓宾补)

依照此前的逻辑分析,此顺序应该调整,分别是1)S + V + C(主体自描述状态);2)S + V(主体自描述事件);3)S + V + O (两主体互动事件);4)S + V + O + C (第一主体呈现或改变第二主体,可以是状态也可以是事件);5)S + V + O + O(三主体交互事件)。

因为there be…句型的特殊性和重要作用(引入主体),可以把它从SVC中分离出来,单独归为一类,添加 0)There be句型在1、2两种主体自描述句型之前,那么就有六种基本句型:

1)There be … (主体存在);

2)S + V + C(主体自描述状态);
3)S + V(主体自描述事件);

4)S + V + O (两主体互动事件);
5)S + V + O + C (第一主体呈现或改变第二主体,可以是状态,也可以产生第二主体后续事件);
6)S + V + O + O(三主体交互事件)。

这一理论框架不但解释了为什么英语存在五种或者六种基本句型,也是后续对英语各种复杂句法进一步分析阐释的基础。

首先我们使用这一理论来审视一下及物动词(vt.)和不及物动词(vi.)这一传统的动词分类。

为什么有的动词不及物有的及物?最根本的原因是部分动词是专门用来描述主体自发事件的,它是自描述,完全没必要涉及第二个主体,当然不及物。举个例子,比如说cry。

She cries.
One girl cried, and Mrs. Wexler held her in her lap.
They danced and hugged, laughed and cried, shouted and rejoiced.

上面的三个主体不论是she、one girl还是they,都是在自发自为地哭泣,用语言来描述,就是相对于主体自身的自描述,它们自足,自成一个王国,所以不及物。

不过cry并不是没有及物的用法,这个时候就要加上介词,形成动词短语,就可以与其他、第二个主体形成互动事件。比如:

cry for sb/sth
The baby was crying for his mother.

cry over sb/sth
He cried over his dead cat.

cry with sth
Anna was almost crying with frustration.

Cry在特殊情况下其实可以直接及物,只要你cry属于你自己的东西即可,比如cry one’s eyes/heart out。此类特别用法,尚有dream a strange dream、live a good life等,动词和自己的指涉对象自相关,自我循环。

及物动词就相对比较简单,因为涉及到主体间交互作用,就用一个这样的动词来连结这些主体,比如kiss,kiss总要跟另一个主体发生关联。

He kissed her on the lips.



上面我们总结了英语的六种基本简单句型,但不要因此轻视了英语句法本身的复杂性,把这些基本句型稍微细化分析,英语的常见句型结构可能多达几十种,它们的主要变化在主语、谓语、宾语这些基本构件的补充语部分。

我们顺着第一主体(主语)补充语,谓语动词补充语,第二主体(宾语)补充语这个次序先后分析。

1)第一主体(主语)补充语

语法书上常见的说法是主语补语,可参考,下面给出例证。

They talked undisturbed.
Sam and Peter parted unreconciled.

She went away disheartened.
Tom arrived home ill.

按照前面的分类,这四句话应该属于S + V结构,后面加了一个补语,描述谓词动作发生时的状态。谓语动词稍有改变,后面两句在动词后跟有副词。实际上我们可以把它们分别予以拆分,语义并不发生明显变化。

They talked. / They were undisturbed.
Sam and Peter parted. / Sam and Peter were unreconciled.

She went away. / She was disheartened.
Tom arrived home./ Tom was ill.

这一现象呼应了我们前面提出的”SVC、SV可以与SVO句型拼合形成SVOC基本结构“这一说法,此处最简单的SV句(主谓)和SVP句(主系表句)拼合形成了比较复杂的SVC句(主谓补句)。分解出来的最简句分别属于主体动作自描述和主体状态自描述,因为它们的主体一致,且动作与状态之间有一定关联(时间一致,或状态是动作的环境等),于是在二者之间实行了嵌套缩合,扩大了信息容量,同时节省时间与笔墨。

下面是更复杂一些的例子,SVO句和SVP句之间进行了嵌套缩合。

She spent a quiet afternoon undisturbed.
He crossed the Pacific single-handed.

She left Japan a famous film star.
He ended the match bottom of the class.

两种形式分别拆分一句。

She spent a quiet afternoon. / She was undisturbed.

She left Japan. / She was a famous film star.

分隔号前面的SVO句按照我们的理论属于两主体互动事件,后面的SVP句则是主体状态自描述,同样因为主语(第一主体)一致,事件与状态存在关联而实行了拼接组装。

2)谓语动词补充语

谓语动词补充语最常见的就是to不定式和ing分词这些非谓语动词,也就是说,第一主体(主语)不只有一个动作,它想有第二个动作、第三个动作,对自己的行为,发生在自己身上的事件进行更深入广泛的描述。因为英语的语法只允许主句里只有一个谓语动词,以其行为作为主事件,对其他动作/事件的叙述就只能采取非谓语动词的形式,即to不定式,ing分词(动名词、现在分词)。在此暂不包括ed分词,因为按照主语的主动视角叙述不存在自己的被动态。

引入主语第二个动作最简单的方式是动名词,直接把表示动作/事件的动词名词化,作为谓语动词的宾语,吸收进SVO基本句型。例如:

I love swimming.
You must stop quarreling.

I don’t fancy going for a walk in the rain.
I have considered traveling abroad next year.
She doesn’t like being asked such questions.

其次是使用不定式,to后面引导的整个动词短语(第二动作/事件)充当谓语动词(第一动作/事件)的宾语,也形成了SVO句型。例如:

I want to go.
He refused to show his passport.
The manager decided to carry out the plan.

或者to后面的动词短语(第二事件)充当谓语动词的状语。例如:

I stayed there to see what would happen.
I went to the grocery store to buy some fruit.

还有一种方式,就是给谓语动词添加、引入现在分词叙述的第二事件做状语。它并不常见,可举例如下:

He sat watching the sunset.
He stood there smoking a cigarette.
She lies looking at the white clouds in the sky.

前两种情形不容易继续拆分,动名词和to不定式引导的整个主体第二事件都被吸收成主体第一动作/动词的宾语。宾语部分可以单独抽离,添加主语、改变动词的语法形式以构成合法的基本句型,而剩下的主语和谓语动词则不能独立成句,因为及物动词的宾语不可为空。

I have considered traveling abroad next year. —> I have considered ? / I will travel abroad next year.

The manager decided to carry out the plan. —> The manager decided ? / The manager will carry out the plan.

这里我们可以把它们看作第一动作(动词/事件)在内部自嵌套了一个第二动作/事件。

后面两种情形可以按照前面的套路继续分解:

I stayed there to see what would happen. —> I stayed there. / I can see what would happen.
She lies looking at the white clouds in the sky —> She lies. / She is looking at the white clouds in the sky.

SV句和SVO句因为主语一致,两个分离事件之间存在关联,于是在同一级别上进行了嵌套缩合。

在此我想引入一个概念——“事件缩写”。事件缩写就是由非谓语动词引导的句子成分,它可能没有独立主语,但存在逻辑主语,补充完整后就是一个合法基本句型,描述发生在某个主体身上的自足事件,此事件可以是主体自描述事件,也可以是主体交互事件。

有了这个概念之后,我们再来观察前列例证的非谓语动词成分。swimming / quarreling / going for a walk in the rain / traveling abroad next year / being asked such questions / to go / to show his passport / to carry out the plan / to see what would happen / to buy some fruit / watching the sunset / smoking a cigarette / looking at the white clouds in the sky.

尽管它们具体形式各样,但共同的特征是只要在最前面添加主语,改写动作动词为相应的谓语动词形式,都是合情合理且合法的基本句型。

实际上英语里除了事件缩写,还存在“状态缩写”,比如,I’ve always wanted to be a teacher. 这句话里“to be a teacher”是一种状态描述,而不是我们定义的动词/动作事件。先提一下,后面还会讲到。

3)第二主体(宾语)补充语

第二主体补充语其实就是我们在一开始就分析过的SVOC句型里的宾语补足语。 我们重新观察一下这些例句。

We called her Annie.
They appointed him chairman.

I found the book easy.
Loud music drives me crazy.

I will let him go.
Tom made the girl cry.
Mary forced John to marry her.

I smell something burning in the kitchen.
He could hear his heart beating fast.

I saw her beaten inside classroom.
Deputies noticed a car parked here last night.

前两组里 her Annie / him chairman / the book easy / me crazy 都属于第二主体(宾语)的“状态缩写”(用宾格形式,省略系动词)。

剩下的语句里全是对宾语(第二主体)的自足叙述实施了“事件缩写”,为符合语法规则,受动者(宾语)改成宾格形式,动词使用非谓语动词形式(to不定式,ing分词,ed分词)。

him go / the girl cry / John to marry her / something burning in the kitchen / his heart beating fast / her beaten inside classroom / a car parked here last night。

现在回头再看一下“1)第一主体(主语)补充语”一节里面的例句。

She went away disheartened.
Tom arrived home ill.

He crossed the Pacific single-handed.
She left Japan a famous film star.
He ended the match bottom of the class

disheartened / ill / single-handed / a famous film star / bottom of the class这些补语实际上都属于“状态缩写”,系动词显然要省略,其所属主体因为和谓语动词一致,也被省略,只留下最精干的状态词本身。

非谓语动词形式的状态缩写和事件缩写在英语句法里有重要功能,因为它把简单句自身包装成了一个整体去充当另一个简单句的句子成分(谓语动词除外),进行自嵌套,从而极大丰富了在有限词语里可以表达的内容。

文中我们已经见过状态/事件缩写充当句子宾语、补语、状语的例证。下面看些它们充当句子主语、表语、定语的例句。

主语:

To err is human.
To punish a very young child is wrong and foolish.

Being a teacher is by far the best job I’ve ever had.
Loving him is like driving a new Maserati down a dead-end street.

表语:

To know her is to love her.
His wish is to buy a luxurious car in the near future.

What he likes is playing chess after supper. (动名词)
Leading to the park is a very delightful road. (倒装句,现在分词做表语)

定语:

I have too many things to do.
The next train to arrive was from New York.

The girl sitting between John and Mary is my sister. (现在分词)
Do you know the number of people coming to the party. (现在分词)

Suddenly there appeared a young woman dressed in green. (过去分词)
The program offered by Wilson was adopted in the end. (过去分词)



熟悉非谓语动词这种状态缩写/事实缩写的表达技巧,我们已经可以从最基本的简单句生成比较复杂的句法结构。不过这远不是英语句法的真实全貌,因为英语还有另一套在基本句里插入相关状态/事实描述的重要手段,这就是从句(subordinate clause)。

英语句法里有三种从句,名词从句(noun clause)、关系从句(relative clause)、状语从句(adverbial clause)。把它们的功能细分,则是我们可能更熟悉的主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句、表语从句、定语从句和状语从句六大类。主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句、表语从句都属于名词从句,因为它们在句子中的功能与名词类同;定语从句即关系从句,也叫形容词从句,在句子当中起修饰形容名词的作用;状语从句也可以叫副词从句,因为功能与副词类似。

不管具体怎么分类,在此我想对各种从句另起一个总称,叫深描从句。为什么呢,英语之所以有这些从句,只是因为觉得简单的名词、形容词、副词对更进一步细致深入的描述不够用,于是发明了这套装置,把一个完整的句子包裹起来当作基本的名词、形容词、副词使用,进行浓墨重彩的深度描绘。

也许有人会疑惑,前面不是说过英语已经有了状态/事件缩写(非谓语动词)这种打包嵌套技术了吗,何以还要再创造一种?道理比较简单,非谓语动词要求进一步引入的事件/状态与既有主体(不管是主语还是宾语)直接相关,是发生在主句主体上的事件,或者呈现在它们身上的状态,你无法引进插入第三个第四个第五个主体,更不用说描摹叙述这些尚不存在的主体的状态或事件。

当然,深描从句的部分功能与非谓语动词(状态/事件缩写)重复,所以一些宾语从句、定语从句和状语从句可以直接改写成非谓语动词形式,语义不发生任何改变。下面给几个例证。

I smell (that) something is burning in the kitchen. / I smell something burning in the kitchen.

The program which was offered by Wilson was adopted in the end. / The program offered by Wilson was adopted in the end.

Because you are my best friend, you must tell me the truth. / Being my best friend, you must tell me the truth.

不过,深描从句的功能要比上面展示的更为复杂强大。简单看几个:

1) As the sun rose, the fog dispersed.

2) I still believe that freedom is the bonus (which/that) you receive for telling the truth.

3) The low mortality rate in the US is due to the fact that the majority of those infected are young adults and middle-aged, similar to Korea and Germany, while the high mortality rate in Italy, Spain and the UK can be explained by the high percentage of the infected who are elderly.

例1在主句之外引入了新的主体sun,也描绘了发生在sun上的动作rose,the sun rose整体作为伴随事件修饰主句。

例2接连引入了第二主体freedom、第三主体bonus,还叙述了它们各自的状态与发生的事件。

例3更为复杂,在一句话里提供了用简单句、非谓语动词形式很可能传达不了的丰富信息。

一个句子的主要成分有主谓宾表定状补语,前面已知非谓语动词可以充当除谓语之外的所有句子成分——主语、宾语、表语、定语、状语、补语,和深描从句对比,会发现从句少了补语这一类型。实际上或许确实存在补语从句,例如:

You can call me what you like.
His mother made him what he is now.
You’d better leave it as it is.
We all regard him as what he is.

what you like / what he is now / as it is / as what he is 这些从句都可以视作SVOC基本句型里的补语部分(但也可以看作是SVOO句型里的直接宾语),不过它们比较罕见,只适用个别情景下的个别词汇,在此提及,不展开讨论。

在简单句里嵌入简单句以丰富拓展表达内涵,这是很天才的想法,但如果粗暴实施,会导致混乱,主次不明。于是依照非谓语动词有特别记号这种办法(添加to、-ing、-ed),凡是句子中插入了深描从句的地方也都打上标记,以让听众/读者特别留意分辨,就是优良的解决方案。所以在英语里使用从句的地方,通常会见到引导词(that等)或者连词(比如if、as soon as等)。

下面我们观察分析一下这些深描从句的具体特征。

1) 主语从句

主语从句比较简单,写一句话,描摹一种状态,或者叙述一个事件,再加个标记,把它们整体放在另一个简单句的主语(首要主体)位置即可。

That the earth moves around the sun is a well-known fact.

Who is to be sent there hasn’t been decided.
whether or not it rains today depends on previous weather conditions.

What has been said can not be unsaid.
Whatever she did was right.
Whoever wants to go may sign up here.

主语从句的引导词可以有:1)连词that、whether等;2)连接代词what、who、which、whatever、whoever、whom 、whichever等;3) 连接副词how、when、where、why等。

为避免头重脚轻,常常用形式主语it替代主语从句放在句首,从句自身则置于句末。如:

It is a well-known fact that the earth moves around the sun.

2) 宾语从句

因为和主语从句一样都属于名词从句,懂了主语从句其实也就等于明白了宾语从句,它们的主要不同只是所处的位置不一样,宾语从句可以放在任何需要宾语的地方,包括做介词的宾语。宾语从句的引导词与主语从句基本相同。

Almost no one doubts that the earth moves around the sun.
We suspected that it was a trick to get our money.

I wonder if you could help me.
I don’t know which way I should go.
I wonder what he wants.
We’ll do whatever we can to save him.

I can not understand how he could say such a thing.
He asked whose handwriting was the best in our class.

I will use the book for what I want.
I know nothing about him except that he lives next door.
We will give the prize to whomever arrives first at the finish line.

3) 表语从句

表语从句也是名词从句,位置在系动词之后。主句主语多为fact、problem、question、reason、idea、conclusion等抽象概念,从句则是对其内涵的具体展开和阐释。

The problem is that life is, and always will be, imperfect and complex.
The mountain is no longer what it used to be.
The question is when will businesses begin to reopen?

4) 同位语从句

同位语从句等于在名词旁边放上它的释义,一般由that引导,也可以用whether,连接代词what、who、whose,连接副词when、where、how、why等。同位语从句通常解释说明的对象是fact、news、report、idea、reason、notion、feeling、discovery、question、problem、doubt、rumour、belief、thought、conclusion等抽象名词。

There was no doubt that he was a fine scholar.
He had the feeling that he would not see her again.

The question whether something is constitutional or not has to be left to the courts to decide.
I have no idea what size shoes she wears.

5) 定语从句

名词从句比较简单,放准位置,用好作为语法标记的引导词即可。定语从句,也即形容词从句,稍微复杂一些。首先,它具有形容词的性质,作为定语修饰先行词,其次,这个先行词同时在主句和从句当中充当被描述的对象,从而在主句和从句之间建立了某种关联、关系,所以也叫关系从句。关系从句由关系词引导,它替代先行词在从句里占位担当某一句子成分。常用的关系词有代词that、which、who、whom、whose、as等,副词when、where、why等。

who
The man who robbed him has been arrested.
Yesterday I helped an old woman who had lost her way.

who指代人,在关系从句中做主语。同时我们可以看到,其指代的先行词The man/an old woman既有在主句中当主语的情况,也有在主句中充当宾语的情况。关系从句通过对先行词在主句之外的另一个事件里的描述来揭示/限定其身份、状态和特性等,使叙述更为准确丰满。

whom
She is the woman (whom) I met on holiday.

当关系词指人且在从句中做宾语时,用whom,常可省略。在主句中,woman是she的自描述,从句中woman则在一个动词事件中被进一步描述界定。

which
He likes to read books which are written by foreign writers.
The school in which he once studied is very famous.

which指代物,在从句中可做主语也可作宾语。注意which充当介词宾语时介词的位置。

whose
The children saw a dog whose legs were hurt badly.

物主代词whose在从句中做主语或宾语的定语,表所属关系。

when, where, why
I remember the day when I first came to this city. (关系词when在从句中作时间状语)
She still live in Orange County, California where she was born and raised. (关系词where在从句中作地点状语)
He explained the reason why he didn’t show up.(关系词why在从句中作原因状语)

that
that比较多能,很多情况下可以替代who、whom、which。

6) 状语从句

状语从句修饰主句的谓语动词或者主句整体,与主句的耦合关系不像定语从句那么密切,单独成句,因此本质上来说不复杂。不过状语从句包含的状况繁杂,每种状况可用的引导词(连词)也很丰富,各自有着微妙的语义区别,所以并不容易熟悉精通。

根据不同状语从句所起的作用,可以粗略把状语从句分为10类,分别表示时间、地点、原因、结果、目的、条件、让步、比较、方式、例外。比较简要地举例如下:

1. 时间

When she was eighteen, she left home to go to university.

引导词有when, before, after, since, while, as, till, until等

2. 地点

Generally, air will be heavily polluted where there are factories.

引导词有where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere等

3. 原因

I love listening to sad music because it is so peaceful.

引导词有because, since, as, given等

4. 结果

You are so beautiful that I can’t get my eyes off you.

引导词有so that, so…that, such…that等

5. 目的

I will leave the party early in order that I will catch the bus.

引导词有in order that, so that, in order that, in case等

6. 条件

If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.

引导词有if, unless, once, so/as long as等

7. 让步

I used to read a lot, though I don’t have much time for books now.

引导词有although, though, while, even if/though等

8. 比较

John can speak English as fluently as his teacher.

引导词有as…as, than, as等

9. 方式

When at Rome, do as the Romans do. I was never allowed to do things the way I wanted to do them.

引导词有as, like, as if, the way等

10. 例外

The exam went pretty well, except that I misread the final question.

引导词有except (that), only等



文章越写越枯燥乏味,很多内容不过是人人皆知的常识,这我自己也很清楚,不过我故意这么做是为了充分展示基本英语句法的丰富多样,在这个已经铺垫好了的基础上再提炼总结。

第一节我们归纳了在英语当中存在六种基本句型,分别是:1)There be … (主体存在);2)S + V + C(主体自描述状态);3)S + V(主体自描述事件);4)S + V + O (两主体互动事件);5)S + V + O + C (第一主体呈现或改变第二主体,可以是状态,也可以产生第二主体后续事件);6)S + V + O + O(三主体交互事件)。

在总结过程当中,我们分析认为S + V + O + C句型实际上是SVO句型在谓语动词后面拼接嵌合了另一个SV、SVC或者SVO句型,S + V + O + O基本句型其实也可以做出类似的解析。在此依然用先前的例句。

Mary gives me a gift.
I will write you a long letter.
He bought his wife a fur coat.

O + O部分的me a gift/you a long letter/his wife a fur coat并不能直接改写为自描述的SVC句,因为gift、letter、coat不是me、you、wife的固有属性和状态,因此不能用系动词be连接,只能用have、get这样的动词,比如说I have a gift、You get a long letter。不过如果改写一下原来的句子,把直接宾语放在间接宾语前面,转换描述角度,就会不一样。

Mary gives a gift to me.
I will write a long letter to you.
He bought a fur coat for his wife.

O + O部分a gift to me/a long letter to you/a fur coat for his wife的两个主体/对象可以用系动词连接,不过要把宾格改为相应的物主代词:The gift is mine. / The long letter is yours. / The fur coat is his wife’s.

直接宾语me、you、wife没有增添什么新的属性和状态,但间接宾语gift、letter、coat有了新的、转移了的物主属性。所以从本质上说,SVOO句型的OO部分也是一个SVC句的缩写,只不过稍有变形,它不是典型SVC句所表达的主体属性/状态自描述,而是赋予主体某个特质或属性。

至此,我们已经把基本句型的5)SVOC和6)SVOO解析合并到了2)SVC、3)SV、4)SVO这三种更原始更基础的句型当中,而对SVC句,还可以做出进一步的分析。

前面的行文没有刻意区分SVC句型到底表示主系表句还是主谓补句,通常来说,主谓补的涵盖范围要大于主系表,主系表句中的动词只能是系动词,主谓补句中的谓语动词选择范围就很宽广。比如:He arrived home ill。它属于SVC句,但是是SVC句中的主谓补结构,不是主系表结构,它可以看作是He arrived home (SV句)和 He was ill(主系表句)的拼接嵌合。

现在严格定义SVC句为主系表句,主语 + 系动词 + 表语(subject + linking verb + predicative),简写为S-LV-P或SVP。又因为系动词没多少实际语义,主要起连接的语法作用,我们可以把SVP改写成 S->P ,更进一步,SP。图示如下:

SVC –> 主系表 –> SVP –> SP

那么,除了There be…句型,在英语当中存在三种最基本的句型结构:SP、SV和SVO。

继续解释下把SVP简写成SP。这在语言当中是否可行、可能呢?我们不妨举汉语中的例证。“她很漂亮。”“苹果酸的。”“臣本布衣。”从语义上说,它们都是标准的在英语里要用SVP句来表达的主体自描述,但汉语可以没有系动词。即使在英语自身当中,句子拼接嵌合时也常常省略系动词(比如上述的He arrived home ill)。

there be…句型,连同我们没提到的It is…句型(It is a dog.),实际上可以在句法上归并到SVP句当中, 只要把there、it当作空主体即可,也可以把there和it当作上帝主体或者世界主体。

于是,英语被精简到只剩下三种原始句型结构:SP、SV、SVO。

依照前面的思路,SVO句型与SP、SV或SVO拼接缩合,就可以得到SVOC句型,SVO与SP(P为名词)拼接缩合,可以得到SVOO句型。又因为S(subject)和O(object)都属于主体,现在把它们分别改写成S1、S2,就有:

(S1 + V + S2) + (S2 + P) –> S1 + V + S2 + P –> SVOC

(S1 + V + S2) + (S2 + V) –> S1 + V + S2 + V –> SVOC

(S1 + V + S2) + (S2 + V + S3) –> S1 + V + S2 + V + S3 –> SVOC (例如 Mary forced John to marry her.)

(S1 + V + S2) + (S2 + P) –> S1 + V + S2 + P –> SVOO (P为名词,例如I will write you a long letter.)

SP、SV、SVO这些原始句型又可以以非谓语动词的形式(to不定式、ing分词,ed分词)嵌套出现在另一个SP、SV、SVO原始句型当中,SP的非谓语动词记为being P2,SV的非谓语动词记为to(V)ing/ed,SVO的非谓语动词记为to(V)ing/ed + S2,于是得到如下排列组合。

(being + P2) + P1
(being + P2) + V1
(being + P2) + V1 + S2
S1 + V1 + (being + P2)

(to(V)ing/ed) + P1
(to(V)ing/ed) + V1
(to(V)ing/ed) + V1 + S2
S1 + V1 + (to(V)ing/ed)

(to(V)ing/ed + S2) + P1
(to(V)ing/ed + S2) + V1
(to(V)ing/ed + S2) + V1 + S2
S1 + V1 + (to(V)ing/ed + S2)

以上的表示可能比较抽象,挑两个解释一下,S1 + V1 + (being + P2) 就是(主语 + 谓语 + <being + 宾语>),例如I love being a teacher。(to(V)ing/ed + S2) + V1 + S2 为 (<非谓语动词 + 宾语> + 主语 + 宾语),例如Buying food consumed a lot of her savings。

由此可见,非谓语动词这种状态/事件缩写技术大大扩展了英文句法的常规框架,使其可以用更多样的形式表达更为丰富的内容。

下面我们讨论深描从句。为了简化问题,在此仅以SVO基础句型为例,记主句为 S + V + O ,从句一为 S1 + V1 + O1,从句二为 S2 + V2 + O2。那么——

主语从句则为:

That + (S1 + V1 + O1) + V + O

宾语从句为:

S + V + That + (S1 + V1 + O1)

定语从句为:

S + V + O + that + (V1 + O1 / S1 + V1)

同位语从句:

S + that (S1 + V1 + O1) + V + O

状语从句为:

X ( when/if/because… ) + (S1 + V1 + O1), S + V + O

因为一个主句当中可以有多个从句,从句里面也可以有从句,所以上面的例句可以将其复杂化,比如在状语从句加宾语从句,在主句里加定语从句,于是演变成:

X ( when/if/because… ) + (S1 + V1 + that + < S2 + V2 + O2 > ), S + V + O + that + (V3 + O3 / S3 + V3)

纯符号过于抽象,看一个例句:

Authorities now say the über-contagion took place over a 14-day period [that was left unchecked] (even as health authorities warned that <it was fast-becoming the epicenter of European spread> after <infected skiers passed it from one to another on the slopes, in the spas and at the bars>).

[that was left unchecked]是定语从句,even as后面引导一个让步状语从句,而这个状语从句里面包含一个宾语从句,宾语从句则由两部分组成,主句是it was fast-becoming the epicenter of European spread,after后引导时间状语从句。

类似于非谓语动词这种状态/事件缩写技术,深描从句以另一种方式提升了英语句法的灵活性和复杂度,不过它们的机理有着共通之处,就是所有的基础简单句型(SP、SV、SVO)在做了语法标记后都可以自由拼接、自由内嵌。简单句里嵌入另一个简单句有点类似于程序设计里的函数调用思想,调用一个外部函数看上去平凡,如果使用得当,却可以使程序自身功能增强无数倍。英语句法正是凭借相似的思想和方法,拼接、内嵌,反复自调用,一步步从幼苗成长为枝繁叶茂的参天大树。